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you

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[Music]

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thank you very much uh so we're all here

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because we're interested in this

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question of are we alone in the universe

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and there's been so many amazing planet

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discoveries in this past year for

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example the whole planet around our

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closest star Proxima Centauri last

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August the three Trappist planets if

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this is working if the three Travis

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planets that were also found in the

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habitable zone and of course LHS 11:40 B

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there's just been so many amazing

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discoveries recently and and so when we

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think about this we're really talking a

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lot about these M dwarfs and M dwarfs

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are much smaller than the Sun and you

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can see this kind of relative size

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depiction here and from Kepler we've

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learned that one in four members likely

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have a habitable planet and so we need

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to consider that these planets that

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we're going to be finding are going to

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be around stars that are very different

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from our Sun and so here's just a image

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of all the nearby known stars and our

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stellar neighborhood and you can see

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that 75% of them are M dwarfs and and

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relatively few are argue dwarf like like

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our Sun so one of the first things that

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we need to look at is how does the star

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impact the atmosphere the spectral

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fingerprints and the bio bio signatures

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in in that planet and as we go

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astronomers for the non astronomers in

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the room as we talk about fgk stars F

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are the bigger ones and M are the

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smaller ones so I'm going to be using

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this terminology throughout the talk of

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F G K and M stars G stars like our Sun

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and by and large you're going from

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higher UV environment to a lower UV

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environment with some caveats which I'll

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explain in just a second

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so UV is interesting because it destroys

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some bio signatures such as methane in

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the atmosphere perhaps making it harder

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to detect around a planet with a lot of

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UV but on the other hand UV produces

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some bio signatures such as ozone

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through the fatalis of oxygen and so and

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when we look at reaction rates we really

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see that it's the ratio of how much far

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UV to near UV that ultimately matters

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and you can see that's easiest in the

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production and destruction rates of

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ozone if you look here the production of

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ozone depends primarily on the far UV

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radiation whereas ozone destruction can

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happen by near UV radiation as well and

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going back to that statement I made

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earlier of these more massive stars have

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higher UV it's really that they have a

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higher near UV because they still have

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that blackbody continuum flux in the in

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the near UV and and these lower mass

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stars have a much higher ratio of far UV

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to near UV flux so this is what's

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changing the different atmospheres

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around these different stellar host

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stars so we also know that planets

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evolved from geology to plate tectonics

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in life our own atmosphere has not

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stayed the same and we heard you know

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possible things we had things like the

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idea or the Archaean snowball phases and

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the jurassic period and other things in

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in our earth history and so this is a

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nice little diagram that we're going to

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think that bio signatures are going to

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also change over this geological time

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and you know talking going back to just

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talk about possible Hayes's that we're

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going to see or different chemistry's

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there happen in the atmosphere so here

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you can see that at the formation of

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Earth we think this is just a broad

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schematic picture we don't have exact

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numbers for a lot of these things on

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early Earth history but there was a lot

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more co2 during the early Earth history

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there was a rise probably a methane

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given the longer lifetime of methane in

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the atmosphere without oxygen and the

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biosphere being dominated by Genesis and

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then oxygen sort of seemed to rise

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broadly speaking in two stages so you

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had sort of this first rise of oxygen

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and then and then a later rise of oxygen

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to modern levels when we heard about

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this in Sony Hartman's talked earlier in

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the in this session before lunch and so

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if we look at just I'm going to pull out

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four different time points that I'm

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going to talk about with you how we

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could detect oxygen through geological

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time and considering these different

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star types so the first one is looking

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at sort of a prebiotic planet you know

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something with higher co2 some methane

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from volcanism but not yet from 'santa

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Genesis and and no oxygen and then also

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looking at things that are around 1%

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modern concentration so that p al you're

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going to see a lot of present

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spirit level so that's one percent of

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our 21% oxygen after the great oxidation

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event and then a third time point with

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around 10 percent oxygen and then of

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course modern earth with our 21 percent

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oxygen in the atmosphere so if we look

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here this is the oxygen a band at point

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7 6 microns and this is just showing in

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the first column you see a prebiotic

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planet then a 1 percent again modern of

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modern concentrations 10 percent P al o

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2 and the modern earth this is for

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different star types FG km but we

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haven't yet considered things like

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surface reflectivity or the stellar

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impact and so this is just showing that

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we're using the same basic oxygen

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concentration for each when we put this

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in a in a clear sky model where we're

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not considering clouds but we are

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considering different effects on the

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atmosphere like rayleigh scattering and

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and whatnot for direct detection spectra

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you can see that you see is there a

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laser pointer on this one

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I don't oh sorry thanks you can see that

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you can see that you start to get that

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little that little bump for oxygen at 1%

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and 10% and then and then the modern

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concentrations again there's color code

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is for F G K and stars so the hotter

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stars are the purple lines going down to

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the red for the M stars and when we add

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clouds that feature seems to obscure

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quite substantially so you whatever

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little bump we had here we don't really

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see it and even for the 10% cases and so

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this led us to think about well okay

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what is actually happening with the

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effect of clouds on the spectra and so

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just looking at the full earth-like

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spectra here in the visible if we were

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to just assume a hundred percent clouds

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at 12 kilometers or six kilometers in

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one kilometer that's what these lines

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represent the dashed line is a clear sky

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model for earth the black line is 100%

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clouds at 12 kilometers the red line is

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100% at 6 and the blue line is 100%

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clouds at one corner so you can see in

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the visible for the higher clouds it

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really does block a lot of the features

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below it as we would expect

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and it's a little different in the

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infrared here is the again for the

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hundred-percent 12 kilometers six

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climbers in one kilometer clouds the

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infrared differs because it also depends

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on the temperature of that cloud layer

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and where the species is sitting in the

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atmosphere and the temperature of the

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absorbing and emitting layer now so if

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we look then if we take out what I

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wanted to do is just take out all the

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things that we were probably going to be

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able to correct for with with telescopes

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so we're going to be able to observe the

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star simultaneously for for example but

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we're probably not necessarily going to

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know the surface reflectivity so I left

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the surface reflectivity in but I took

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out the the influence of the stars

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ooming that we could completely remove

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that signal and here then looking at the

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situation with the light blue line is

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the one percent the the middle line here

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is a ten percent and the hundred percent

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oxygen case this is for zero percent

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clouds and now we're going to go up to a

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hundred percent clouds and so you can

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see how the the feature strengths are

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diminishing with cloud cloud percentage

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for for these different levels of oxygen

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and and of course it's much stronger but

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effect when you have less of it and and

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and you see it's pretty much diminished

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for especially the one in ten percent

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cases so if we want to consider then

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ozone as a possible proxy let's see how

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that is influenced by clouds so we have

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the same setup with the prebiotic case

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the one percent ten percent of modern

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earth and here you have already with our

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clear sky models we we see these strong

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features of ozone especially for the F

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and G stars early on with only one

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percent oxygen levels and and then of

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course the feature is quite strong going

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up until modern when we add clouds

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there's less of a less of a diminishing

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effect of those clouds on the ozone

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feature and I think this is most

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striking if you compare these two

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side-by-side with the oxygen feature and

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the ozone feature this is assuming a 60%

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cloud similar to what we have on earth

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with cloud layers at one commerce

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more than 12 kilometers you see here's

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the prebiotic case the 1% P al to 10%

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and the modern earth concentrations and

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you would be able to detect that

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presence through the ozone feature much

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earlier in Earth's history and so if we

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look at also the detect ability of o2 is

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Lavar now this is using the chronograph

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simulator that has already been I think

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mentioned three or four times in this

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session from tae Robinson if we look at

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this and calculate what are the rough

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integration times that we could get with

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Lubar to detect oxygen with different

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cloud coverages and altitudes so here we

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have increasing cloud coverage and

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different cloud layers so you'll notice

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it's actually easiest to detect with a

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higher percentage of clouds which might

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encounter intuitive but you get a higher

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signal with the like the added

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reflectivity and if it's a low layer

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cloud that oxygen still above the cloud

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deck and so you are going to increase

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your signal that way whereas if you have

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higher clouds and a higher cloud

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altitude then it becomes harder to

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detect and so the last thing I want to

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show you is is looking at the bio

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signature detection then through

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geological time if we just pull out

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things in the IR here this is again the

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3.9 giga year are so pre life phase a IR

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spectra for different spectral types and

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if we go down to the 1% PIL case the 10%

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PA l case and the modern earth case we

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can see that the first again the first

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combination especially a bio signatures

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is going to happen when you can detect

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possibly ozone in combination with

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methane in the IR and you can most

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easily do this for these hotter spectral

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types for early levels of oxygen where

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you're going to get that production rate

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and be able to see those together and

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then by around 10% PL you can detect it

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for a lot of different star types and

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and that's that's maybe one

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consideration we should consider when

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we're looking for these planets around

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other stars - at what geological phases

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we might be able to best detect life so

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in summary we know that the

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UV is going to be a huge player in and

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the spectral type of the star I think

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this really highlights the need for we

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need simultaneous UV observations of

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these two stars and after Hubble without

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a UV mission we need to do something

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about that because the UV dominates so

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much of our modeling and for retrieval

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methods this will really be vital for

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understanding planets will be at a wide

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range of different evolutionary

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histories I just highlighted some things

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from Earth on history but we're going to

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see such a huge range even beyond that

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so we need to be considering those as a

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lot of other talks have already done

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today and also you know clouds for

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oxygen it might it might be a little sad

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but you can still see ozone quite

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strongly throughout so I'll stop there

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with any questions thank you so much

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there a please if you have any questions

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come up to one of the microphones in the

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center of the room so you have some sean

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donahoe coleman esse goddard so if you

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had a you know you're hinting that if

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you had a choice between getting the

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oxygen or getting those on you'd go for

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the ozone given the clouds problem but

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what if the choice is really oxygen with

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direct imaging versus ozone with the

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transit transmission measurement where

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the clouds might become more of an issue

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for that kind of measurement so are you

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saying ozone in the IR in the in the IR

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um yeah I mean foof I'm thinking you

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know like if it's a choice between like

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a JWST or an Origin Space Telescope

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where you can operate any and thread but

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you're limited to transit transactions

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and UV vis direct imaging yeah I mean

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it's hard because ultimately I you know

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as we've been talking you kind of need

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both and I'm going back to Sonics talk

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on this you know especially depending on

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what the level of a bad aqaq sejoon

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could be reached and hell and then what

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ozone level that could be detectable for

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these features it might be ambiguous

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even even detecting ozone as well you

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know I think Vicky once said that she's

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like I want both you know I want I want

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to detect the the oxygen because that

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gives you an

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which is really useful and we also want

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to detect you know the IR features are

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just an easier place to detect molecules

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and gases I personally prefer the IR but

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I do think ultimately getting we need

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the UV so I also want to I don't know I

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want it all right I didn't really hope

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okay can you get we have few more

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minutes stuff time so yep yeah all right

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I'll just do this so which aspects of so

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this was looking at sort of earth-like

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chemistry's as we move away from planets

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that may not be like earth which aspects

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of sort of degassing chemistry or

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geology are really are going to affect

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the strength of that ozone signal the

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strength of the ozone him well you were

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talking about ozone so if the chemistry

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was different than the earth are there

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ways of putting reductants into the

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atmosphere that could change her ozone

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signal so how could you could you model

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that as well sure so definitely

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depending I think because ozone

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primarily comes from oxygen so we're

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talking about how much oxygen could be

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there so so I refer you to several

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papers that have been done on this this

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balance of infection on donegal Goldman

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has a great paper talking about the

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different types of reducing plant

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Affairs and then where you can get how

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much oxygen you could get and then you

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can use from that ozone as well and so I

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would I would refer to Sean Donnell

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Goldman's 2014 paper hi Sarah nice talk

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good to see you again good to see so you

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said the very end that you wanted

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simultaneous UV can you comment more on

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the balance between simultaneous sources

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contemporaneous UV yes so I think with M

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stars that are flaring and having high

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activity levels it would be really great

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to know kind of what what's happening

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ideally some at the same time for stars

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that are quieter like fgk stars you

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probably can just get an idea of what's

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happening with the UV in general I know

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there's some models that are trying to

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develop too

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how we get this 4m stars but I with with

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the amount of variability within M stars

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and also the extreme influence that has

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on our ability to tease out these false

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positives especially which tend to be

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predominantly for M stars

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I want as simultaneous as we can get for

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UV I think would be useful if not at

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least having an idea of how frequent are

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these flares

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what is the the state's you know the

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study states between the flaring state

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and acquire some states so that we can

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use that into our retrieval models and

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make sure that the atmosphere is not

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changing quite so much in that time

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scale so you think then the response

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time is instantaneous from a UV flare or

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fires instantaneous there's actually

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there's actually a paper that came out

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last year I I can send you the reference

402
00:16:28,240 --> 00:16:26,060
I'm blanking on the name in my in my

403
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brain right now but now I think that

404
00:16:31,240 --> 00:16:29,839
looks at the you know the hysteresis

405
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affective response times of the

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atmosphere after a flare and I think

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it's like ah if I remember 10 to the 7

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I'm not going to say a number because I

409
00:16:44,019 --> 00:16:42,320
could be wrong but there is some there's

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some like legs time between these

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responses and then multiple flares on

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how it gets to a different atmospheric

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state thanks think think looks like